In the shadow of resplendent arches, envoys approached the court of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustasim, the revered spiritual leader of millions of Sunni Muslims across the globe. The envoys presented a message from Hulagu Khan, the World Conqueror, which detailed the Mongol Army’s conquests from the era of Genghis Khan to the present day. It is likely that you are aware of the consequences of these actions on the world and its inhabitants.
The message advised against any attempt to resist the Mongol advance, instead recommending that the populace surrender and seek protection. Those who failed to comply would face dire consequences, as Hulagu and the vast Mongol Army continued their westward march with the intention of subjugating all lands. This mission was carried out under the orders of the Great Khan, Mongke. In a previous conflict with the Order of Assassins, the Caliph had declined to submit to the Khan’s authority.
One might inquire whether this young man possesses the fortitude to insult Hulagu. You have recently attained the age of majority and are therefore presumed to hold the expectation of an eternal life. You assume that your authority is absolute. For a period of five centuries, the House of Abbas, which is related to the Prophet Muhammad, has exercised authority over Baghdad. The city’s walls are imposing and impressive, with a skyline adorned with magnificent mosques and minarets, serving as a beacon for the faithful to offer prayers to Allah. The streets wind through verdant gardens, within which colleges and libraries flourish. Scholars versed in the sciences and humanities navigate the heavens and engage in discourse on topics such as mathematics, metaphysics, and the ancient wisdom of Plato and Aristotle, which were preserved in Arabic under the patronage of the Abbasids.
The Islamic world has made notable progress in the fields of science and medicine, with the construction of automata, machines, and water-powered clocks being particularly noteworthy. Within this caliphate, women are largely excluded from participation in public and economic activities. In addition to Sunni Islam, there are numerous religious minorities, including Shia Muslims, Christians, and Jews, each with their own distinctive practices. The future of the entire population is contingent upon the actions of a caliph who is perceived as weak.
This individual is inclined towards indulgence in worldly pleasures and the accumulation of wealth, rather than effective governance or battle. He takes pride in the achievements of his ancestors and boasts to Hulagu Khan that every monarch who has dared to attack the Abbasid Dynasty in Baghdad has met a tragic fate. He is confident in the enduring strength of his palace’s foundation and declares it will stand until Judgment Day. In response, Hulagu Khan asserts his determination to bring down Baghdad, likening the city’s fate to being thrown into the jaws of a lion. He then proceeds to recount his recent military successes in the eastern mountains and neighboring territories, thereby signaling his unstoppable advance.
Mongol General Kitbuqa ensures that towns and people who hesitate to surrender are razed to the ground as he advances. Hulagu receives an offer from the Caliph, which includes a substantial payment if the Mongols withdraw. Hulagu responds, “Given our current position, it would be unwise to turn back without meeting with the Caliph.” The Caliph, influenced by the conflicting interests within his court, resorts to threats, warning that if Hulagu immediately retreats, he might spare the Mongols. Hulagu dismisses the threat with a derisive laugh, displaying a profound sense of superiority over the Caliph and his forces. Consequently, emboldened by their intrepid commander, the valiant warriors of Baghdad, the Dawatdar, set out to engage in combat.
The soldiers of the Caliphate have established a defensive perimeter around their city, preventing the Mongol forces from approaching the walls. The troops encounter a Mongol division a few miles away. The Mongols initially retreat, prompting the Abbasid soldiers to celebrate their victory by capturing a few invaders and collecting their heads. However, the Mongol retreat proved to be a strategic maneuver designed to lure out the Abbasid troops.
The Mongols capitalize on the situation by rupturing dikes and flooding the plain behind the pursuing Abbasid soldiers. The swift Mongol cavalry, renowned for their skilled horsemanship, pursue the Abbasid soldiers, shooting them with arrows and driving them into the water to drown. Following the conclusion of the battle, the Mongols proceeded to scavenge the battlefield for any remaining spoils.
In order to send gifts to Hulagu, 12,000 ears of grain are gathered in a hastily organized collection effort. In the past, the Caliphs of the Islamic Empire would have mobilized distant Sunni armies to assist the city. However, the current Caliph lacks the authority to do so. The defenses are inadequately prepared, and the allies have not yet arrived. Over a hundred thousand Mongols encircle the city from all sides, their march and terrifying shouts intensifying as a rising tide around the great House of Abbas. Paths are obstructed; Hulagu Khan has declared his intention to spare no one.
The walls of Baghdad, now isolated and vulnerable, face the full force of the Mongol onslaught. The Mongols have constructed their own defensive barriers and a moat around the city. On January 29th, 1258, the Mongol onslaught commenced. The walls and streets of Baghdad are subjected to a constant barrage of large stones, which pound them day and night. The Mongol forces assault the gates with relentless determination, while the cries of anguish fill the air as the people face their grim destiny.
In a last-ditch effort to salvage the situation, the frantic Caliph initiates negotiations, but Hulagu rejects them. The Mongol catapults bring down a strong tower on the eastern side of Baghdad, and the vast Mongol army pours over the high walls in thousands. The Mongol forces overpowered the garrison, killing all those they encountered. Additionally, thousands of Christian troops from Armenia and Georgia have joined the Mongols, eager to engage in combat against their Islamic adversaries.
As Mongol forces patrol the city walls, a multitude of refugees hastily embark on boats in an attempt to escape the city. The Dawatdar also attempts to flee, but discovers that the Mongols have constructed bridges over the river. They rain down stones and incendiary projectiles on the boats, capturing three vessels and killing all aboard. Realising that there is no alternative, the Dawatdar returns to the city. Meanwhile, the Caliph orders him to surrender personally to Hulagu. The exhausted Abbasid soldiers and the thousands of civilians, now devoid of any remaining hope, cast down their weapons and join the ranks of those who submit to the Mongols.
In a tragic turn of events, the Mongols, after a period of peaceful coexistence with the inhabitants, divided them up, led them out of Baghdad, and executed them all in a brutal manner. The heads of the Dawat and other officials are sent as a grim reminder to Mosul’s governor. Al-Mustasim, the caliph without an army, finally emerges to surrender. In a surprising display of composure, Hulagu first inquires about his well-being and then issues an order for the people to lay down their arms.
In the aftermath of the Mongol invasion, tens of thousands of people emerged from their hiding places, only to be mercilessly slaughtered by the Mongols. Families are separated, mothers and infants are killed, and the landscape is covered with bodies. The city is then pillaged and massacred for days in order to quell any remaining resistance.
Hulagu fulfills his pledge to spare the Christian and Shia Muslim communities, but orders the annihilation of all others. He then commands the caliph to host a feast, during which the Mongols plunder centuries’ worth of treasures, desecrate royal tombs, and dishonor women. Great mosques and palaces were set ablaze, houses of wisdom were reduced to ruins, and corpses clogged the waterways.
The estimated death toll of between 800,000 and 2 million represents one of the most significant atrocities in history. Even Hulagu, dismayed by the devastation, relocates his encampment from the city. He summons the caliph and, believing that shedding noble blood would bring a heavenly curse, orders his execution. This is said to have involved rolling him in a carpet and trampling him to death. Nearly all of his family and followers were also killed, leaving a deep scar in the Islamic world’s collective memory.
This marks the end of a golden age, a devastating blow dealt by the descendants of Genghis Khan. Over the following years, the Mongols continued their conquests into Syria. However, their demand for surrender from Egypt’s Mamluks resulted in the envoys’ failure to return, foreshadowing another chapter of Mongol destruction.