Following numerous frigid nights and a considerable distance, the party arrives at a Chinese city bearing a gift for Ambaghai Khan, the ruler of a nomadic confederation hailing from the desolate northern region. Beyond the city gates of Zhongdu, the capital of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, the prisoner is escorted through streets where curious onlookers observe.
The party approaches a Chinese city with a gift: the captive Ambaghai Khan, ruler of a confederation of nomads. Beyond the city gates of Zhongdu, capital of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, Ambaghai meets a grim fate for his past defiance.
Ambaghai’s predecessor, Qabul Khan, had previously devastated the Jin Dynasty and openly defied its emperor. The Jin emperor then proceeds to demonstrate his respect for the deceased by executing him in a particularly gruesome manner—nailing him to a wooden donkey. Prior to his death, Ambaghai is able to send a final command to his Mongol kin through a messenger heading north.
At the northernmost extent of the Gobi Desert, sand dunes give way to a region of dry grasslands. The expansive green appears to shimmer gold under the drifting sun, casting shadows over distant mountains. Yurts, the traditional felt and wood dwellings of the steppe, are dispersed throughout the landscape. These dwellings are easily disassembled and moved by nomads as they migrate to new pastures.
Context and Political Landscape: A generation ago, Ambaghai’s predecessor Qabul Khan had devastated the Jin, leaving a legacy of enmity. The Jurchen Emperor demonstrates respect by executing Ambaghai publicly, thereby signaling the Jin’s control over the nomadic confederations.
The inhabitants of the Mongolian Plateau adhere to the belief that the world is influenced by spirits that reside in mountains, rivers, and even in the dark clouds above. Shamans play a pivotal role in the Mongolian cultural landscape, engaging in ritualistic chanting to gain spiritual insight and expel malevolent spirits. While they worship Tengri, the Heavenly Spirit, the Mongols frequently find themselves enmeshed in the political machinations of their southern neighbors.
Three decades ago, the steppe was under the control of the Liao Dynasty, whose Khitan rulers were displaced westward by the rising Jurchen, founders of the Jin Dynasty. The dissolution of the Liao Dynasty resulted in the establishment of numerous Mongolic and Turkic ruling houses, which gained control of the abandoned Liao garrisons and forts. These rulers forged alliances through marriage, trade, and at times, through violent conflict, in order to secure plunder and revenge.
The Mongolian plateau is home to a number of distinct cultural groups, each with its own set of spiritual beliefs. One such belief system is Tengriism, which holds that Tengri, the Will of Heaven, is the supreme deity. This deity is believed to inhabit natural elements, and the shamans of these communities play a crucial role in mediating between the physical and spiritual realms.
Government Administration
This region, which was once the birthplace of great empires such as the ancient Xiongnu and Turkic khaganates, now only retains vestiges of its former glory. The Jurchen Jin Dynasty maintains its frontier by fostering divisions among the steppe peoples. Ambaghai Khan’s ill-fated attempt to arrange a marriage alliance with the Tatars ultimately resulted in betrayal. Ambaghai was captured and delivered to the Jin for execution. His final orders reached the Mongols, who were instructed to take up arms and exact revenge until their fingers wore down to the bone.
Chosen to lead this vengeful campaign is Qutula Khan, a warrior of formidable strength and reputedly born from the earth itself, from the demon-haunted lands of Ghorqonas Jubur. Qutula’s call is answered by allied Mongol clans and noble warriors of the Borjigin house, including his spirited nephew Yesugei. From adolescents to elders, all are called upon to engage in military service. While wealthier warriors may possess padded, metal, or leather armor, the majority of warriors go into battle wearing simple robes, armed with handcrafted composite bows strengthened with horn, sinew, and wood.
The Mongolian people are not soldiers trained in barracks; rather, they are born warriors shaped by a harsh environment of bitter winters and vast grasslands. They tend to their livestock, which includes sheep, goats, yaks, oxen, and occasionally camels. Their diets consist largely of dairy products, including cheeses, yogurts, and airag (fermented mare’s milk), which are supplemented with mutton and game meat.
The Mongols derive their power primarily from their intimate connection with the horse. From an early age, Mongolians are accustomed to riding, as they are as comfortable on horseback as they are on foot. In addition to falconry, their proficiency in hunting from horseback with bows sharpens their accuracy, which is further honed through archery games and rigorous training. Battlefield tactics are refined during mass hunts known as nerge, where riders encircle a vast area, coordinating a synchronized advance to trap game. This practice instills in every Mongol an instinctive mastery of mounted archery.
However, it is instances of sporadic violence, personal loss, and perceived indignity that instigate a profound and enduring hatred for their adversaries. In response to the brutal execution of Ambaghai Khan, the Mongols rally behind Qutula and prepare for war. Although their horses initially appear to be ordinary and unremarkable, they are in fact meticulously trained and hardened against extreme weather conditions, exhibiting exceptional stamina. Each warrior is in command of several horses, which are trained to remain relentless in attack and elusive in retreat. The sound of hooves striking the ground reverberates across the Tatar camps, indicating the imminent clash.
The Mongol forces, positioned in their saddles, unleashed a volley of arrows upon their adversaries, seizing the unresisting and appropriating whatever they could lay their hands on. In a renewed conflict with the Tatars, Qutula and his forces also turn their attention towards the Jin Dynasty. It is probable that they will strike vulnerable border regions, trampling through settlements, killing some inhabitants, and enslaving others. Livestock is stolen, and the houses and farms of sedentary peoples are set ablaze after being looted of their treasures and goods. The Mongol campaign leaves a trail of destruction and violence, provoking fierce reprisals from their adversaries.
Political Intrigue and Power Shifts: Three decades ago, the Liao Dynasty ruled much of the steppe until displaced by the Jurchen Jin, fragmenting power among Mongolic and Turkic tribes. Ambaghai’s betrayal by the Tatars, whom he sought to ally through marriage, further exacerbates tensions.
In the context of the volatile political landscape of the steppe, the maintenance of alliances is of paramount importance. One day, Qutula and Yesugei encountered Toghrul, the deposed prince of the Kereyid people. The Kereyid khans claim supremacy over the Mongolian plateau, although their actual dominion is more limited. Nevertheless, their influence remains considerable. Toghrul, driven by ambition to claim his late father’s throne, has recently executed two of his brothers in his bid for power. In response, his uncle Gurkhan launched an attack and deposed him from his position.
Yet Yesugei discerns something valuable in Toghrul’s ruthless ambition, perhaps recognizing it as a quality befitting a potential ally. Despite Qutula’s cautionary words about Toghrul’s treacherous nature, which include the assertion that “friendship with him is not advisable,” and that he “killed his own brothers and stained his lance with their blood,” Yesugei disregards the warning. He forms a bond of anda, or blood brotherhood, with Toghrul, a pact that will intertwine the destinies of their respective houses.
With Yesugei rallying his warriors, they launch attacks on Gurkhan’s encampments, aiding Toghrul in his bid for the Kereyid throne. Historically, some of the ruling Kereyids have embraced Christianity under the Nestorian or Eastern Church, remnants of early Western missions. Despite these foreign influences, the people of the Mongolian plateau, including those with distant religious affiliations, maintain a steadfast belief in shamanistic divinations and the overarching will of heaven.
The Call to Revenge and the Rise of Qutula Khan: In the final moments of his life, Ambaghai’s dying command spurred the Mongols to arms under the leadership of Qutula Khan, a prominent figure from the Borjigin house. In alliance with other forces, including Yesugei, they pledge vengeance against the Tatars and the Jin.
In 1164, Qutula Khan met his demise at the hands of the Tatars, thereby losing the allegiance he had previously commanded among the Mongols. With his demise, Mongol authority declines, and hostilities with the Tatars intensify, resulting in extensive bloodshed across the steppe. In the midst of these tumultuous times, Yesugei distinguished himself as a courageous warrior but was unable to achieve the rank of khan. In order to ensure a promising future for his young son, Temujin, Yesugei arranges for the boy to work in exchange for his betrothal to Borte, the daughter of a chieftain.
On his return journey from finalizing this arrangement, Yesugei accepts hospitality from the Tatars, unaware that his hosts harbor malevolent intentions. They recognized him and poisoned his food, which led to his swift decline and death in the following days. The legacy of Yesugei, like much of Mongol history from this era, is predominantly preserved in later records penned by Mongols and their descendants. These accounts celebrate the virtues of his lineage, diminish the stature of their adversaries, and imbue these tumultuous years with a sense of predestined fate.
A study of Mongol society and warfare reveals that the Mongols were a nomadic people who lived in the steppes of Central Asia. They were skilled horsemen and archers, and their daily lives revolved around the pursuit of these skills. The Mongols are born riders and archers, and their skills are honed through daily life on the steppe. The Mongols’ principal strengths were their proficiency in mounted archery and their capacity for strategic unity, which was forged by the rigors of a nomadic existence centered on livestock and the harsh winter conditions they endured.
In this context, the early life of Temujin, later to be known as Genghis Khan, emerges from this backdrop of struggle, betrayal, and eventual ascension to become one of history’s most formidable conquerors.
At this juncture, the Mongols were not a dominant force. A significant number of Mongols were reduced to the status of common slaves under the Jin dynasty, frequently captured and sold during conflicts. Yesugei’s two wives were left widowed, with the responsibility of caring for Temujin and his six siblings, who were abandoned by their clan. It seemed that the line of Yesugei might be extinguished here, forgotten in the harsh wilderness, while the Mongols remained subservient to the Chinese dynasty.
However, unexpectedly, Temujin would ascend to prominence under the title Genghis Khan, forging a legacy that would alter the course of history. His ascent from adversity to conqueror was a development that was unforeseen, much like the rise of the Mongols themselves.
- Alliances and Betrayals: Yesugei’s alliance with Toghrul of the Kereyid people illustrates the pragmatic alliances and betrayals that shaped steppe politics. Their bond as blood brothers marks a pivotal moment in Yesugei’s rise and Toghrul’s quest for power.
- Birth of Temujin and Fate’s Design: Subsequent to Yesugei’s exploits and the birth of his son Temujin, who was destined for greatness according to Mongol tradition, the course of fate takes a cruel turn. The downfall of Qutula Khan at the hands of the Tatars results in a shift in power dynamics, leaving Yesugei vulnerable.
- The rise of Genghis Khan represents a pivotal moment in history. With the death of Yesugei, Temujin’s future is uncertain. Orphaned and vulnerable, Temujin’s journey from potential obscurity to the founding of the Mongol Empire commenced, defying all odds.